1. Evolution

• 1.1 Unity and Diversity of Life on Earth
  • 1.1.1 Properties of Life

• 1.2 Early Perspectives in Science
  • 1.2.1 An Introduction to Biology
  • 1.2.2 The Nature of Science: The Story of Darwin
  • 1.2.3 Early Scientific Thought
  • 1.2.4 The Emerging Science of Geology

• 1.3 An Introduction to Evolution
  • 1.3.1 Linnaeus, Buffon, and Lamarck
  • 1.3.2 Darwin: The Voyage Continues
  • 1.3.3 Darwin: More Observations

• 1.4 Evolution: The Theory of Natural Selection
  • 1.4.1 Darwin: The Theory of Natural Selection
  • 1.4.2 The Theory of Natural Selection
  • 1.4.3 Contrasting Lamarck and Darwin
  • 1.4.4 Contrasting Lamarck and Darwin, Part II

• 1.5 Fossils and Evolution
  • 1.5.1 Fossil Formation, Dating, and Indexing
  • 1.5.2 The Fossil Record
  • 1.5.3 Some Fossil Surprises
  • 1.5.4 The Coevolution of Horses and Plants
  • 1.5.5 Mass Extinctions: An Asteroid Can Ruin Your Day

• 1.6 Human Evolution
  • 1.6.1 Human Evolution: What Is a Primate?
  • 1.6.2 Human Evolution: The Family Tree
  • 1.6.3 Human Evolution: The Fossil Record

• 1.7 Evidence for Evolution
  • 1.7.1 Evidence for Evolution: Biochemical Similarities
  • 1.7.2 Evidence for Evolution: Vestigial Structures
  • 1.7.3 Homologous Structures

• 1.8 Species Concepts
  • 1.8.1 Species Concepts
  • 1.8.2 Speciation
  • 1.8.3 Prezygotic Reproductive Isolation
  • 1.8.4 Postzygotic Reproductive Isolation

• 1.9 Examples of Artificial and Natural Selection
  • 1.9.1 Artificial Selection in Action
  • 1.9.2 Natural Selection in Action

• 1.10 The Origin of Life
  • 1.10.1 History of Life: The Heterotroph Hypothesis: An Overview
  • 1.10.2 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: An Introduction
  • 1.10.3 The Origin of Life: Life from Nonlife
  • 1.10.4 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: Protobionts
  • 1.10.5 The Heterotroph Hypothesis: The First Genetic Material
  • 1.10.6 The Origin of Life: The Rest of the Story

• 1.11 Classifying Life
  • 1.11.1 The Linnaean System
  • 1.11.2 The Linnaean System: Still Changing

2. Inorganic and Organic Chemistry

• 2.1 An Introduction to Atoms
  • 2.1.1 Atomic Structure: SPONCH and the Atom
  • 2.1.2 Electrons, Orbitals, and Electron Shells
  • 2.1.3 Ions, Ionization, and Isotopes
  • 2.1.4 Isotopes: Unraveling Photosynthesis

• 2.2 Atoms and Bonding
  • 2.2.1 Bonding and Electronegativity
  • 2.2.2 Ionic and Covalent Bonds
  • 2.2.3 Polar Covalent Bonds, Hydrogen Bonds, and Van der Waals Interactions

• 2.3 Properties of Water
  • 2.3.1 Water: Hydrogen Bonding, Solubility, and Specific Heat
  • 2.3.2 Water: Adhesion, Cohesion, and a Solid That Floats
  • 2.3.3 Water: Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Substances
  • 2.3.4 Dissociation of Water and the pH Scale
  • 2.3.5 Hemoglobin as a Buffer

• 2.4 Carbon Chemistry
  • 2.4.1 Carbon Chemistry and Isomers
  • 2.4.2 Functional Side Groups

• 2.5 Carbohydrates
  • 2.5.1 Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides
  • 2.5.2 Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Disaccharides
  • 2.5.3 Polysaccharides: Energy Storage Molecules
  • 2.5.4 Polysaccharides: Structural Molecules

• 2.6 Lipids and Nucleic Acids
  • 2.6.1 Lipids: An Introduction
  • 2.6.2 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats
  • 2.6.3 Phospholipids, Waxes, and Steroids
  • 2.6.4 Nucleic Acids: An Introduction to Genetic Material

• 2.7 Proteins
  • 2.7.1 Proteins: Amino Acids and the Peptide Bond
  • 2.7.2 Amino Acids: The R Groups
  • 2.7.3 Primary and Secondary Structure
  • 2.7.4 Tertiary Structure
  • 2.7.5 Quaternary Structure
  • 2.7.6 Protein Structure: A Summary

• 2.8 Enzymes
  • 2.8.1 Bioenergetics: The Laws of Thermodynamics
  • 2.8.2 Activation Energy
  • 2.8.3 Enzyme Characteristics

• 2.9 Enzyme Action
  • 2.9.1 Enzyme Action: The Induced-Fit Model
  • 2.9.2 Enzyme Regulation: Allosteric Regulation
  • 2.9.3 Feedback Inhibition and Cooperativity

3. Cell Biology

• 3.1 An Introduction to Cell Biology
  • 3.1.1 The History of Cytology
  • 3.1.2 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes
  • 3.1.3 Plant and Animal Cell Overview: The Basics
  • 3.1.4 Membranes: Basic Structure
  • 3.1.5 The Nuclear Envelope: The Initial Tour
  • 3.1.6 Nuclear Function: Who's in Charge?

• 3.2 Membrane-Bound Organelles
  • 3.2.1 Cellular Function: Endoplasmic Reticulum
  • 3.2.2 Cell Function: Golgi Apparatus
  • 3.2.3 Food Vacuole Formation: The Role of the Lysosome
  • 3.2.4 Still More Vacuoles and Peroxisomes
  • 3.2.5 Mitochondria: Welcome Guests
  • 3.2.6 The Origin of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

• 3.3 The Cytoskeleton
  • 3.3.1 The Cytoskeleton: Basic Components
  • 3.3.2 Centrioles, Flagella, and Cilia
  • 3.3.3 Cell Walls

• 3.4 The Plasma Membrane
  • 3.4.1 Plasma Membrane: The Extracellular Matrix
  • 3.4.2 The Plasma Membrane: The Fluid-Mosaic Model
  • 3.4.3 Proteins as the Mosaic of the Cell Membrane
  • 3.4.4 Animal Cell Junctions

• 3.5 Cell Transport
  • 3.5.1 Simple and Facilitated Diffusion
  • 3.5.2 Passive Transport: Osmosis
  • 3.5.3 Active Transport: Ion Pumps and Cotransport
  • 3.5.4 Active Transport: The Sodium-Potassium Pump
  • 3.5.5 Energy-Requiring Transport: Endocytosis and Exocytosis

• 3.6 Tools for Cell Biology
  • 3.6.1 Tools of the Cytologist: Light and Fluorescent Microscopy
  • 3.6.2 Scanning and Transmission Electron Microscopes
  • 3.6.3 Freeze Fracture and Differential Centrifugation

• 3.7 The Evolution of Metabolic Functions
  • 3.7.1 Major Modes of Nutrition Among Organisms

4. Respiration

• 4.1 An Introduction to Respiration
  • 4.1.1 ATP Structure and Function
  • 4.1.2 Phosphorylated Intermediates
  • 4.1.3 Respiration: An Overview
  • 4.1.4 Redox: A Brief Review
  • 4.1.5 Energy Release from Sugar: A Demo
  • 4.1.6 Coenzymes: The Role of NAD⁺

• 4.2 Glycolysis and Fermentation
  • 4.2.1 Glycolysis: The Initial Steps: Energy Input
  • 4.2.2 Glycolysis: The Energy Payoff
  • 4.2.3 Anaerobic Respiration: The Fermentation of Pyruvate

• 4.3 Aerobic Respiration
  • 4.3.1 Aerobic Respiration: The Acetyl CoA Step
  • 4.3.2 Aerobic Respiration: The Krebs Cycle
  • 4.3.3 Glycolysis and the Krebs Cycle

• 4.4 The Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation
  • 4.4.1 The Electron Transport Chain
  • 4.4.2 Oxidative Phosphorylation
  • 4.4.3 ATP Yield from Aerobic Respiration
  • 4.4.4 Other Fuels in Respiration
  • 4.4.5 The Evolution of Glycolysis

5. Photosynthesis

• 5.1 Discovering Photosynthesis
  • 5.1.1 The Unraveling of Photosynthesis: A Historical Perspective
  • 5.1.2 Photosynthesis: Twentieth-Century Breakthroughs
  • 5.1.3 Photosynthesis: The Final Picture

• 5.2 Adaptations for Photosynthesis
  • 5.2.1 The Leaf: Adaptations for Photosynthesis
  • 5.2.2 The Structure of a Chloroplast
  • 5.2.3 Photosynthetic Pigments
  • 5.2.4 The Nature of Light
  • 5.2.5 Photoexcitation and Electron Transfer

• 5.3 The Light Reactions
  • 5.3.1 The Light Reactions: An Introduction
  • 5.3.2 Photosystem 1
  • 5.3.3 Photosystem 2
  • 5.3.4 The Light Reactions: A Summary

• 5.4 The Dark Reactions
  • 5.4.1 The Calvin Cycle
  • 5.4.2 The Calvin Cycle: RuBP Regeneration
  • 5.4.3 A Review of Photosynthesis

• 5.5 Photorespiration
  • 5.5.1 Photorespiration
  • 5.5.2 C₄ Plants and CAM Plants
  • 5.5.3 The Evolution of Photosynthesis

6. Molecular Genetics

• 6.1 Discovering DNA
  • 6.1.1 Molecular Genetics: The Protein vs. DNA Debate
  • 6.1.2 Continuing to Link Genes to Chemicals: Muller, Beadle, and Tatum
  • 6.1.3 Griffith and Transformation
  • 6.1.4 Avery, MacLeod and McCarty/Hershey and Chase: DNA Wins!
  • 6.1.5 Chargaff and Franklin and Wilkins: The DNA Story Begins

• 6.2 DNA Structure Revealed
  • 6.2.1 Watson and Crick: The Clues
  • 6.2.2 Watson and Crick: The Double Helix

• 6.3 Introduction to DNA Replication
  • 6.3.1 Replication: Meselson and Stahl
  • 6.3.2 DNA: Polymerization with Triphosphate Nucleotides

• 6.4 Events of DNA Replication
  • 6.4.1 Events at the Replication Fork: The Leading Strand
  • 6.4.2 Events at the Leading Strand, Part II
  • 6.4.3 Events at the Replication Fork: The Lagging Strand
  • 6.4.4 Proofreading, End Replication, and Telomeres
  • 6.4.5 DNA Replication: A Summary

• 6.5 Transcription
  • 6.5.1 Transcription and Translation: An Overview
  • 6.5.2 Transcription: RNA Formation from the DNA Template
  • 6.5.3 Transcription: Termination and RNA Protection
  • 6.5.4 Posttranscriptional Modification/RNA Splicing

• 6.6 Translation
  • 6.6.1 Translation: Ribosomal and Transfer RNA
  • 6.6.2 The Role of Transfer RNA: Charging a tRNA Molecule
  • 6.6.3 Translation: Initiation Events
  • 6.6.4 Translation/Elongation: The Initiation of Elongation
  • 6.6.5 Elongation Continued and Termination

• 6.7 Protein Synthesis Review
  • 6.7.1 Polypeptide Destinations: Signal Peptides and ER Ribosomes
  • 6.7.2 Protein Synthesis: An Overview

• 6.8 The lac Operon
  • 6.8.1 Control Mechanisms: Lactose Metabolism in E. coli
  • 6.8.2 Jacob and Monod's Model: The lac Operon
  • 6.8.3 lac Operon: The Summary

• 6.9 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization
  • 6.9.1 The Eukaryotic Genome: DNA Packing
  • 6.9.2 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Repetitive DNA
  • 6.9.3 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Gene Families
  • 6.9.4 Eukaryotic Genomic Organization: Transposons and Amplified Genes

• 6.10 Controlling Protein Synthesis in Eukaryotes
  • 6.10.1 Eukaryotic Gene Control: Transcriptional Controls
  • 6.10.2 Eukaryotic Control Mechanisms: Posttranscriptional and Posttranslational Controls
  • 6.10.3 Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes: Protein-Making Machinery

7. Biotechnology

• 7.1 Plasmids and Gene Cloning
  • 7.1.1 Biotechnology: Plasmids in Prokaryotes
  • 7.1.2 Using a Restriction Enzyme to Create a Vector
  • 7.1.3 Biotechnology: Gene Cloning
  • 7.1.4 Biotechnology: Detection of Cell Clones

• 7.2 Techniques in Biotechnology
  • 7.2.1 Biotechnology: Reverse Transcriptase: A Tool Taken from Viruses
  • 7.2.2 Using Reverse Transcriptase to Make cDNA
  • 7.2.3 Electrophoresis: Separating DNA
  • 7.2.4 Sequencing DNA: The Sanger Method

• 7.3 More Techniques in Biotechnology
  • 7.3.1 Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms: Genetic Markers
  • 7.3.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction: DNA Amplification
  • 7.3.3 DNA Fingerprinting
  • 7.3.4 Southern Blotting
  • 7.3.5 Detecting DNA Homology: A Biotechnology Summary

• 7.4 Human Genome Project
  • 7.4.1 The Human Gene Pool
  • 7.4.2 The Human Genome Project: Recent Findings
  • 7.4.3 The Human Genome Project: Applications

8. Cell Reproduction

• 8.1 An Introduction to the Cell Cycle and Mitosis
  • 8.1.1 The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
  • 8.1.2 Mitosis: An Overview
  • 8.1.3 Mitosis: The Phases
  • 8.1.4 Cytokinesis

• 8.2 Regulating Mitosis
  • 8.2.1 Cell-Cycle Regulation: Protein Kinases
  • 8.2.2 Cell-Cycle Regulation: Other Mechanisms
  • 8.2.3 Cancer: When Mitosis Goes Unchecked
  • 8.2.4 The ras Gene and the p53 Gene

• 8.3 Meiosis
  • 8.3.1 Sexual Reproduction and the Role of Meiosis
  • 8.3.2 Homologous Chromosomes: Thanks, Mom and Dad!
  • 8.3.3 Meiosis: Prophase I
  • 8.3.4 Disjunction and Meiosis II
  • 8.3.5 Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• 8.4 Understanding Meiosis
  • 8.4.1 Independent Assortment
  • 8.4.2 Spermatogenesis: Meiosis in Males
  • 8.4.3 Oogenesis: Meiosis in Females

9. Mendelian Genetics and Mutation

• 9.1 Gregor Mendel
  • 9.1.1 Heredity: The Story of Gregor Mendel
  • 9.1.2 Mendel's Findings: A First Look at Phenotypic Ratios
  • 9.1.3 Mendel's Conclusions: Alternate Alleles and Dominance
  • 9.1.4 Mendel's Conclusions: Segregation and Recombination

• 9.2 The Laws of Mendelian Inheritance
  • 9.2.1 Determining Heterozygosity: Test Crosses and Back Crosses
  • 9.2.2 Mendelian Inheritance

• 9.3 Segregation and Independent Assortment
  • 9.3.1 Segregation and Independent Assortment
  • 9.3.2 Independent Assortment: An Explanation

• 9.4 Laws of Probability
  • 9.4.1 Laws of Probability: Rule of Multiplication
  • 9.4.2 The Multiplicative Law: Some Extensions
  • 9.4.3 Laws of Probability: The Additive Rule
  • 9.4.4 Using the Laws of Probability in Dihybrid Crosses

• 9.5 Genetic Dominance
  • 9.5.1 What Is a Dominant Gene? Intermediate Inheritance
  • 9.5.2 Codominance and Multiple Alleles: ABO Blood Genes
  • 9.5.3 ABO Blood Groups: Inheritance Patterns and Pedigree Charts

• 9.6 Epistasis
  • 9.6.1 Epistasis: One Gene Affecting Another
  • 9.6.2 The Bombay Phenotype: Infidelity or Epistasis?

• 9.7 Inheritance Patterns
  • 9.7.1 Polygenic Inheritance
  • 9.7.2 Pleiotropy: Multiple Phenotypic Effects
  • 9.7.3 Sickle Cell Anemia: The Case against Dominant and Recessive

• 9.8 Linked Genes and Genetic Mapping
  • 9.8.1 Linked Genes
  • 9.8.2 Crossing Over and Recombination: A Tool for Mapping Genes
  • 9.8.3 Gene Mapping Using Recombination Frequencies
  • 9.8.4 Linking Genes to Chromosomes: The Work of Morgan
  • 9.8.5 Morgan's Conclusions

• 9.9 Sex Linkage and Pedigree Charts
  • 9.9.1 Sex-Linked Traits in Humans
  • 9.9.2 X Inactivation in Humans
  • 9.9.3 The Use of Pedigree Charts to Determine Possible Genotypes
  • 9.9.4 Pedigree Chart: Problem Review

• 9.10 Problems in Heredity
  • 9.10.1 Problems in Heredity
  • 9.10.2 Problems in Heredity: Chromosomal Aberrations
  • 9.10.3 Translocations: 14/21 Downs

• 9.11 Genetic Mutation
  • 9.11.1 Genetic Mutation
  • 9.11.2 Genetic Mutation: Different Forms of Point Mutations
  • 9.11.3 Genetic Mutation: Insertion and Deletion
  • 9.11.4 Genetic Screening

10. Population Genetics and Evolution

• 10.1 The Hardy-Weinberg Theory
  • 10.1.1 Population Genetics: Darwin Meets Mendel
  • 10.1.2 An Introduction to Hardy-Weinberg Theory
  • 10.1.3 The Hardy-Weinberg Equation
  • 10.1.4 Using the Hardy-Weinberg Theory
  • 10.1.5 Using the Hardy-Weinberg Theory II
  • 10.1.6 Hardy-Weinberg: What Does This Have to Do with Evolution?

• 10.2 Departing From Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
  • 10.2.1 Microevolution by Genetic Drift
  • 10.2.2 Microevolution: Continued

• 10.3 Variations in Populations and Modes of Selection
  • 10.3.1 Variations Within and Between Populations
  • 10.3.2 Modes of Selection
  • 10.3.3 The Perfect Organism

• 10.4 Speciation
  • 10.4.1 Speciation: What Is a Species?
  • 10.4.2 Allopatric Speciation
  • 10.4.3 Sympatric Speciation

• 10.5 Evolution
  • 10.5.1 Time Frame for Evolution: Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium

11. The Evolution of Life on Earth

• 11.1 Classifying Earth's Organisms
  • 11.1.1 Classifying the Products of Evolution: Taxonomy
  • 11.1.2 Building a Cladogram
  • 11.1.3 Molecular Methods for Classifying Organisms
  • 11.1.4 A Phylogenetic Tree of Organisms: A Three-Domain System

• 11.2 Domain Archaea
  • 11.2.1 The Archaea

• 11.3 Domain Bacteria
  • 11.3.1 The Bacteria

• 11.4 Protists and the Origin of the Eukaryota
  • 11.4.1 Protists: Archaezoa and Euglenozoa
  • 11.4.2 Protists: Alveolata and Stramenopila

• 11.5 The Colonization of Land by Plants
  • 11.5.1 Plant Phylogeny: The Colonization of Land
  • 11.5.2 Plant Phylogeny and Alternation of Generations

• 11.6 Alternation of Generations: Mosses, Ferns, and Gymnosperms
  • 11.6.1 Alternation of Generations: Mosses
  • 11.6.2 Alternation of Generations: Ferns
  • 11.6.3 Alternation of Generations: Gymnosperms

• 11.7 Angiosperms
  • 11.7.1 Alternation of Generations: The Structure of a Flower
  • 11.7.2 Alternation of Generations: Angiosperms
  • 11.7.3 Embryogenesis in Angiosperms: Dicots and Monocots

• 11.8 Fungi
  • 11.8.1 Introduction to the Fungi
  • 11.8.2 Diversity of Fungi

• 11.9 Evolution of the Animal Kingdom
  • 11.9.1 Constructing a Phylogenetic Tree of Animals: Animal Development
  • 11.9.2 Developmental Data for the Phylogenetic Tree of Animals
  • 11.9.3 The Formation of Body Cavities
  • 11.9.4 Protostomes and Deuterostomes
  • 11.9.5 Animal Diversity: The Cambrian Explosion and the Move to Land

• 11.10 Invertebrates
  • 11.10.1 Introduction to Animals: Parazoa and Radiata
  • 11.10.2 Animals: Acoelomates, Pseudocoelomates, and Coelomates
  • 11.10.3 Diversity of Protostome Species

• 11.11 Deuterostomes
  • 11.11.1 Diversity of Deuterostome Species
  • 11.11.2 Diversity of Vertebrate Species

• 11.12 Chordate Development
  • 11.12.1 Animal Development: A Close-up Look at Fertilization Events
  • 11.12.2 Cleavage, Gastrulation, and Organogenesis: A Closer Look
  • 11.12.3 Events of Gastrulation and Organogenesis

• 11.13 The Cellular and Molecular Basis of Development
  • 11.13.1 Pattern Formation in Drosophila
  • 11.13.2 Pattern Formation in Drosophila, continued

• 11.14 Viruses and Prions
  • 11.14.1 Viruses and Prions: Living or Nonliving?

12. Animal Systems and Homeostasis

• 12.1 Introduction to Animal Systems and Homeostasis
  • 12.1.1 Animal Homeostasis
  • 12.1.2 Mechanisms of Homeostasis
  • 12.1.3 Animal Tissues: Epithelial Tissue
  • 12.1.4 Animal Tissues: Loose Connective Tissue
  • 12.1.5 Animal Tissues: Dense, Fluid, and Supportive Connective Tissue
  • 12.1.6 Animal Tissue: Muscle and Nerve Tissue

• 12.2 The Skeletal System
  • 12.2.1 The Structure of Bone

• 12.3 The Digestive System
  • 12.3.1 Introduction to the Digestive System
  • 12.3.2 The Beginning of Chemical Digestion
  • 12.3.3 Chemical Digestion in the Small Intestine
  • 12.3.4 Human Nutrition: Absorption
  • 12.3.5 The Fate of Absorbed Nutrients
  • 12.3.6 Egestion

• 12.4 Gas Exchange and Transport Systems
  • 12.4.1 Introduction to the Gas Exchange of Animals
  • 12.4.2 Human Gas Exchange System
  • 12.4.3 Human Gas Exchange: The Roles of Respiratory Pigments
  • 12.4.4 Carbon Dioxide Transport
  • 12.4.5 Structure of the Human Heart

• 12.5 Circulation
  • 12.5.1 Maintaining the Human Heartbeat
  • 12.5.2 Human Circulation: Blood Vessels

• 12.6 Blood Pressure and Clotting
  • 12.6.1 Human Circulation: Blood Pressure
  • 12.6.2 Blood Clotting

• 12.7 Human Excretion
  • 12.7.1 Human Excretion: Waste Processing
  • 12.7.2 Human Excretion: Urinary System Structure
  • 12.7.3 The Nephron: Blood Filtration and Urine Production

• 12.8 The Immune System: An Introduction
  • 12.8.1 The Immune Response: Nonspecific Defenses
  • 12.8.2 The Immune System: Structure and Function
  • 12.8.3 Immunity: Clonal Selection Theory
  • 12.8.4 Immune Response: An Overview
  • 12.8.5 T Cells: Helper T Activation
  • 12.8.6 T Cells: Helper and Cytotoxic T Cell Effects

• 12.9 The Immune System Continued
  • 12.9.1 B Cells: The Humoral Response
  • 12.9.2 Antibodies and DNA Rearrangement
  • 12.9.3 Antibody Mechanisms

• 12.10 HIV and the Immune System
  • 12.10.1 HIV: An Attack on the Immune System

• 12.11 The Endocrine System
  • 12.11.1 Human Regulation: Endocrine Control and Signal-Transduction Pathways
  • 12.11.2 The Endocrine System
  • 12.11.3 Endocrine Function: Oscillations in Hormone Levels

• 12.12 The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
  • 12.12.1 The Ovarian and Uterine Cycles: Preparation for Pregnancy
  • 12.12.2 Hormonal Events during the Female Reproductive Cycle

• 12.13 The Nervous System
  • 12.13.1 The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems and the Neuron
  • 12.13.2 Human Regulation: Nervous System: Nerve Function and Reflexes

• 12.14 The Nerve Impulse
  • 12.14.1 Human Regulation: The Nerve Impulse: General Events
  • 12.14.2 Human Regulation: The Nervous System and the Action Potential
  • 12.14.3 Human Regulation: Synaptic Events: Cell-Cell Communication
  • 12.14.4 The Nervous System: A Phylogenetic Perspective
  • 12.14.5 The Human Brain
  • 12.14.6 Processing Centers of the Human Brain

• 12.15 Motor Mechanisms
  • 12.15.1 Motor Control: Muscle Microstructure
  • 12.15.2 The Neuromuscular Junction: The Contraction Is Triggered
  • 12.15.3 The Sliding Filament: Interaction of ATP, Actin, Myosin, and Calcium
  • 12.15.4 Muscle Structure and Action

• 12.16 Sensory Reception
  • 12.16.1 Sensory Systems: An Introduction
  • 12.16.2 Photoreceptors and the Vertebrate Eye
  • 12.16.3 The Ear and Equilibrium
  • 12.16.4 The Ear and Hearing

13. Plant Systems and Homeostasis

• 13.1 Plant Development
  • 13.1.1 Plant Development: Germination
  • 13.1.2 Plant Development: Cell Structure and Function
  • 13.1.3 Primary Growth: Root Growth and Development
  • 13.1.4 Primary Growth: Stem Growth and Development
  • 13.1.5 Secondary Growth: Lateral Meristems and Secondary Vascular Tissue

• 13.2 Plant Hormones
  • 13.2.1 Regulation in Plants
  • 13.2.2 Plant Hormones
  • 13.2.3 Signal Transduction Pathways in Plants

• 13.3 Photoperiodism
  • 13.3.1 Photoperiodism in Plants: Control of Flowering
  • 13.3.2 Phytochromes and the Photoperiodic Response

• 13.4 Plant Transport
  • 13.4.1 Transport in Angiosperms: Transpiration
  • 13.4.2 The Role of Xylem Tissue and Stomata
  • 13.4.3 Plant Transport: Absorption and Lateral Transport in Roots
  • 13.4.4 Phloem: The Movement of Sap

14. Ecology

• 14.1 Introduction to Ecology
  • 14.1.1 Ecological Organization: The Functional Divisions of the Ecologist

• 14.2 Biomes
  • 14.2.1 Land Biomes: An Overview
  • 14.2.2 Terrestrial Biomes: Water-Limited Environments
  • 14.2.3 Aquatic Biomes

• 14.3 Animal Behavior
  • 14.3.1 Ecology at the Level of the Species: Behavior
  • 14.3.2 Imprinting and Innate Behavior
  • 14.3.3 Nature vs. Nurture: Is There a Genetic Basis for Behaviors?

• 14.4 Competitive and Courtship Behaviors
  • 14.4.1 Competitive Behaviors and Survivability
  • 14.4.2 Courtship and Mating Behaviors: Survivability

• 14.5 Population Ecology
  • 14.5.1 Population Ecology: Populations with Unlimited Resources
  • 14.5.2 Population Ecology: The Reality of Limited Resources
  • 14.5.3 Population Ecology: Population Strategy: r vs. K
  • 14.5.4 Population Ecology: Intraspecific Competition

• 14.6 Community Ecology: Interspecific Interactions
  • 14.6.1 Community Ecology: Interspecific Interaction: Predation
  • 14.6.2 Interspecific Competition: Ecological Niches
  • 14.6.3 Interspecific Associations: Symbiosis

• 14.7 Community Ecology: Succession
  • 14.7.1 Community Disturbance: Succession
  • 14.7.2 Secondary Succession

• 14.8 Community Ecology: Species Diversity
  • 14.8.1 The Decline in Species Diversity and the Current Mass Extinction

• 14.9 Energy Flow in an Ecosystem
  • 14.9.1 Ecosystems: A Flow of Energy
  • 14.9.2 Ecosystems: Productivity and Energy Flow
  • 14.9.3 Productivity Pyramids: Visualizing Energy Flows
  • 14.9.4 Productivity Pyramids: Pyramid of Numbers

• 14.10 Chemical Cycling in the Ecosystem
  • 14.10.1 Ecosystems and Material Cycles: Water, Carbon, and Sulfur
  • 14.10.2 Ecosystems and Material Cycles: Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles

• 14.11 Human Effect on the Ecosystem
  • 14.11.1 The Effects of Human Population Growth: Lake Eutrophication
  • 14.11.2 Toxic Accumulation and Ozone Depletion